It will be useful to have a git repository to experiment with as you
read this manual.
-The best way to get one is by using the gitlink:git-clone[1] command to
+The best way to get one is by using the linkgit:git-clone[1] command to
download a copy of an existing repository. If you don't already have a
project in mind, here are some interesting examples:
Those snapshots aren't necessarily all arranged in a single line from
oldest to newest; instead, work may simultaneously proceed along
-parallel lines of development, called <def_branch,branches>>, which may
+parallel lines of development, called <<def_branch,branches>>, which may
merge and diverge.
A single git repository can track development on multiple branches. It
does this by keeping a list of <<def_head,heads>> which reference the
-latest commit on each branch; the gitlink:git-branch[1] command shows
+latest commit on each branch; the linkgit:git-branch[1] command shows
you the list of branch heads:
------------------------------------------------
Most projects also use <<def_tag,tags>>. Tags, like heads, are
references into the project's history, and can be listed using the
-gitlink:git-tag[1] command:
+linkgit:git-tag[1] command:
------------------------------------------------
$ git tag -l
while heads are expected to advance as development progresses.
Create a new branch head pointing to one of these versions and check it
-out using gitlink:git-checkout[1]:
+out using linkgit:git-checkout[1]:
------------------------------------------------
$ git checkout -b new v2.6.13
------------------------------------------------
The working directory then reflects the contents that the project had
-when it was tagged v2.6.13, and gitlink:git-branch[1] shows two
+when it was tagged v2.6.13, and linkgit:git-branch[1] shows two
branches, with an asterisk marking the currently checked-out branch:
------------------------------------------------
------------------------------
Every change in the history of a project is represented by a commit.
-The gitlink:git-show[1] command shows the most recent commit on the
+The linkgit:git-show[1] command shows the most recent commit on the
current branch:
------------------------------------------------
each parent representing the most recent commit on one of the lines
of development leading to that point.
-The best way to see how this works is using the gitlink:gitk[1]
+The best way to see how this works is using the linkgit:gitk[1]
command; running gitk now on a git repository and looking for merge
commits will help understand how the git organizes history.
of the HEAD in the repository that you cloned from. That repository
may also have had other branches, though, and your local repository
keeps branches which track each of those remote branches, which you
-can view using the "-r" option to gitlink:git-branch[1]:
+can view using the "-r" option to linkgit:git-branch[1]:
------------------------------------------------
$ git branch -r
(Newly created refs are actually stored in the .git/refs directory,
under the path given by their name. However, for efficiency reasons
they may also be packed together in a single file; see
-gitlink:git-pack-refs[1]).
+linkgit:git-pack-refs[1]).
As another useful shortcut, the "HEAD" of a repository can be referred
to just using the name of that repository. So, for example, "origin"
For the complete list of paths which git checks for references, and
the order it uses to decide which to choose when there are multiple
references with the same shorthand name, see the "SPECIFYING
-REVISIONS" section of gitlink:git-rev-parse[1].
+REVISIONS" section of linkgit:git-rev-parse[1].
[[Updating-a-repository-with-git-fetch]]
Updating a repository with git fetch
-----------------------------------------
You can also track branches from repositories other than the one you
-cloned from, using gitlink:git-remote[1]:
+cloned from, using linkgit:git-remote[1]:
-------------------------------------------------
$ git remote add linux-nfs git://linux-nfs.org/pub/nfs-2.6.git
This is what causes git to track the remote's branches; you may modify
or delete these configuration options by editing .git/config with a
text editor. (See the "CONFIGURATION FILE" section of
-gitlink:git-config[1] for details.)
+linkgit:git-config[1] for details.)
[[exploring-git-history]]
Exploring git history
"master" crashes. Sometimes the best way to find the cause of such a
regression is to perform a brute-force search through the project's
history to find the particular commit that caused the problem. The
-gitlink:git-bisect[1] command can help you do this:
+linkgit:git-bisect[1] command can help you do this:
-------------------------------------------------
$ git bisect start
After about 13 tests (in this case), it will output the commit id of
the guilty commit. You can then examine the commit with
-gitlink:git-show[1], find out who wrote it, and mail them your bug
+linkgit:git-show[1], find out who wrote it, and mail them your bug
report with the commit id. Finally, run
-------------------------------------------------
- HEAD: refers to the head of the current branch
There are many more; see the "SPECIFYING REVISIONS" section of the
-gitlink:git-rev-parse[1] man page for the complete list of ways to
+linkgit:git-rev-parse[1] man page for the complete list of ways to
name revisions. Some examples:
-------------------------------------------------
which refers to the other branch that we're merging in to the current
branch.
-The gitlink:git-rev-parse[1] command is a low-level command that is
+The linkgit:git-rev-parse[1] command is a low-level command that is
occasionally useful for translating some name for a commit to the object
name for that commit:
This creates a "lightweight" tag. If you would also like to include a
comment with the tag, and possibly sign it cryptographically, then you
-should create a tag object instead; see the gitlink:git-tag[1] man page
+should create a tag object instead; see the linkgit:git-tag[1] man page
for details.
[[browsing-revisions]]
Browsing revisions
------------------
-The gitlink:git-log[1] command can show lists of commits. On its
+The linkgit:git-log[1] command can show lists of commits. On its
own, it shows all commits reachable from the parent commit; but you
can also make more specific requests:
$ git log -p
-------------------------------------------------
-See the "--pretty" option in the gitlink:git-log[1] man page for more
+See the "--pretty" option in the linkgit:git-log[1] man page for more
display options.
Note that git log starts with the most recent commit and works
----------------
You can generate diffs between any two versions using
-gitlink:git-diff[1]:
+linkgit:git-diff[1]:
-------------------------------------------------
$ git diff master..test
-------------------------------------------------
Sometimes what you want instead is a set of patches; for this you can
-use gitlink:git-format-patch[1]:
+use linkgit:git-format-patch[1]:
-------------------------------------------------
$ git format-patch master..test
-------------------------------------------------
Alternatively, you may often see this sort of thing done with the
-lower-level command gitlink:git-rev-list[1], which just lists the SHA1's
+lower-level command linkgit:git-rev-list[1], which just lists the SHA1's
of all the given commits:
-------------------------------------------------
$ gitk e05db0fd..
-------------------------------------------------
-Or you can use gitlink:git-name-rev[1], which will give the commit a
+Or you can use linkgit:git-name-rev[1], which will give the commit a
name based on any tag it finds pointing to one of the commit's
descendants:
e05db0fd tags/v1.5.0-rc1^0~23
-------------------------------------------------
-The gitlink:git-describe[1] command does the opposite, naming the
+The linkgit:git-describe[1] command does the opposite, naming the
revision using a tag on which the given commit is based:
-------------------------------------------------
given commit.
If you just want to verify whether a given tagged version contains a
-given commit, you could use gitlink:git-merge-base[1]:
+given commit, you could use linkgit:git-merge-base[1]:
-------------------------------------------------
$ git merge-base e05db0fd v1.5.0-rc1
will produce empty output if and only if v1.5.0-rc1 includes e05db0fd,
because it outputs only commits that are not reachable from v1.5.0-rc1.
-As yet another alternative, the gitlink:git-show-branch[1] command lists
+As yet another alternative, the linkgit:git-show-branch[1] command lists
the commits reachable from its arguments with a display on the left-hand
side that indicates which arguments that commit is reachable from. So,
you can run something like
head named "master" but not from any other head in your repository.
We can list all the heads in this repository with
-gitlink:git-show-ref[1]:
+linkgit:git-show-ref[1]:
-------------------------------------------------
$ git show-ref --heads
$ gitk $( git show-ref --heads ) --not $( git show-ref --tags )
-------------------------------------------------
-(See gitlink:git-rev-parse[1] for explanations of commit-selecting
+(See linkgit:git-rev-parse[1] for explanations of commit-selecting
syntax such as `--not`.)
[[making-a-release]]
Creating a changelog and tarball for a software release
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
-The gitlink:git-archive[1] command can create a tar or zip archive from
+The linkgit:git-archive[1] command can create a tar or zip archive from
any version of a project; for example:
-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
Figuring out why this works is left as an exercise to the (advanced)
-student. The gitlink:git-log[1], gitlink:git-diff-tree[1], and
-gitlink:git-hash-object[1] man pages may prove helpful.
+student. The linkgit:git-log[1], linkgit:git-diff-tree[1], and
+linkgit:git-hash-object[1] man pages may prove helpful.
[[Developing-with-git]]
Developing with git
email = you@yourdomain.example.com
------------------------------------------------
-(See the "CONFIGURATION FILE" section of gitlink:git-config[1] for
+(See the "CONFIGURATION FILE" section of linkgit:git-config[1] for
details on the configuration file.)
$ git status # a brief per-file summary of the above.
-------------------------------------------------
-You can also use gitlink:git-gui[1] to create commits, view changes in
+You can also use linkgit:git-gui[1] to create commits, view changes in
the index and the working tree files, and individually select diff hunks
for inclusion in the index (by right-clicking on the diff hunk and
choosing "Stage Hunk For Commit").
*.[oa]
-------------------------------------------------
-See gitlink:gitignore[5] for a detailed explanation of the syntax. You can
+See linkgit:gitignore[5] for a detailed explanation of the syntax. You can
also place .gitignore files in other directories in your working tree, and they
will apply to those directories and their subdirectories. The `.gitignore`
files can be added to your repository like any other files (just run `git add
them in a file in your repository named .git/info/exclude, or in any file
specified by the `core.excludesfile` configuration variable. Some git
commands can also take exclude patterns directly on the command line.
-See gitlink:gitignore[5] for the details.
+See linkgit:gitignore[5] for the details.
[[how-to-merge]]
How to merge
------------
You can rejoin two diverging branches of development using
-gitlink:git-merge[1]:
+linkgit:git-merge[1]:
-------------------------------------------------
$ git merge branchname
information you need to help resolve the merge.
Files with conflicts are marked specially in the index, so until you
-resolve the problem and update the index, gitlink:git-commit[1] will
+resolve the problem and update the index, linkgit:git-commit[1] will
fail:
-------------------------------------------------
file.txt: needs merge
-------------------------------------------------
-Also, gitlink:git-status[1] will list those files as "unmerged", and the
+Also, linkgit:git-status[1] will list those files as "unmerged", and the
files with conflicts will have conflict markers added, like this:
-------------------------------------------------
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
All of the changes that git was able to merge automatically are
-already added to the index file, so gitlink:git-diff[1] shows only
+already added to the index file, so linkgit:git-diff[1] shows only
the conflicts. It uses an unusual syntax:
-------------------------------------------------
Since the stage 2 and stage 3 versions have already been updated with
nonconflicting changes, the only remaining differences between them are
-the important ones; thus gitlink:git-diff[1] can use the information in
+the important ones; thus linkgit:git-diff[1] can use the information in
the index to show only those conflicts.
The diff above shows the differences between the working-tree version of
column is used for differences between the first parent and the working
directory copy, and the second for differences between the second parent
and the working directory copy. (See the "COMBINED DIFF FORMAT" section
-of gitlink:git-diff-files[1] for a details of the format.)
+of linkgit:git-diff-files[1] for a details of the format.)
After resolving the conflict in the obvious way (but before updating the
index), the diff will look like:
$ git diff --theirs file.txt # same as the above.
-------------------------------------------------
-The gitlink:git-log[1] and gitk[1] commands also provide special help
+The linkgit:git-log[1] and gitk[1] commands also provide special help
for merges:
-------------------------------------------------
These will display all commits which exist only on HEAD or on
MERGE_HEAD, and which touch an unmerged file.
-You may also use gitlink:git-mergetool[1], which lets you merge the
+You may also use linkgit:git-mergetool[1], which lets you merge the
unmerged files using external tools such as emacs or kdiff3.
Each time you resolve the conflicts in a file and update the index:
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
Creating a new commit that reverts an earlier change is very easy;
-just pass the gitlink:git-revert[1] command a reference to the bad
+just pass the linkgit:git-revert[1] command a reference to the bad
commit; for example, to revert the most recent commit:
-------------------------------------------------
changes, giving you a chance to edit the old commit message first.
Again, you should never do this to a commit that may already have
-been merged into another branch; use gitlink:git-revert[1] instead in
+been merged into another branch; use linkgit:git-revert[1] instead in
that case.
It is also possible to replace commits further back in the history, but
In the process of undoing a previous bad change, you may find it
useful to check out an older version of a particular file using
-gitlink:git-checkout[1]. We've used git checkout before to switch
+linkgit:git-checkout[1]. We've used git checkout before to switch
branches, but it has quite different behavior if it is given a path
name: the command
If you just want to look at an old version of the file, without
modifying the working directory, you can do that with
-gitlink:git-show[1]:
+linkgit:git-show[1]:
-------------------------------------------------
$ git show HEAD^:path/to/file
While you are in the middle of working on something complicated, you
find an unrelated but obvious and trivial bug. You would like to fix it
-before continuing. You can use gitlink:git-stash[1] to save the current
+before continuing. You can use linkgit:git-stash[1] to save the current
state of your work, and after fixing the bug (or, optionally after doing
so on a different branch and then coming back), unstash the
work-in-progress changes.
information from taking up too much space on disk or in memory.
This compression is not performed automatically. Therefore you
-should occasionally run gitlink:git-gc[1]:
+should occasionally run linkgit:git-gc[1]:
-------------------------------------------------
$ git gc
Checking the repository for corruption
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
-The gitlink:git-fsck[1] command runs a number of self-consistency checks
+The linkgit:git-fsck[1] command runs a number of self-consistency checks
on the repository, and reports on any problems. This may take some
time. The most common warning by far is about "dangling" objects:
Dangling objects are not a problem. At worst they may take up a little
extra disk space. They can sometimes provide a last-resort method for
-recovering lost work--see <<dangling-objects>> for details. However, if
-you wish, you can remove them with gitlink:git-prune[1] or the `--prune`
-option to gitlink:git-gc[1]:
-
--------------------------------------------------
-$ git gc --prune
--------------------------------------------------
-
-This may be time-consuming. Unlike most other git operations (including
-git-gc when run without any options), it is not safe to prune while
-other git operations are in progress in the same repository.
-
-If gitlink:git-fsck[1] complains about sha1 mismatches or missing
-objects, you may have a much more serious problem; your best option is
-probably restoring from backups. See
-<<recovering-from-repository-corruption>> for a detailed discussion.
+recovering lost work--see <<dangling-objects>> for details.
[[recovering-lost-changes]]
Recovering lost changes
Reflogs
^^^^^^^
-Say you modify a branch with `gitlink:git-reset[1] --hard`, and then
+Say you modify a branch with `linkgit:git-reset[1] --hard`, and then
realize that the branch was the only reference you had to that point in
history.
you've checked out.
The reflogs are kept by default for 30 days, after which they may be
-pruned. See gitlink:git-reflog[1] and gitlink:git-gc[1] to learn
+pruned. See linkgit:git-reflog[1] and linkgit:git-gc[1] to learn
how to control this pruning, and see the "SPECIFYING REVISIONS"
-section of gitlink:git-rev-parse[1] for details.
+section of linkgit:git-rev-parse[1] for details.
Note that the reflog history is very different from normal git history.
While normal history is shared by every repository that works on the
into your own work.
We have already seen <<Updating-a-repository-with-git-fetch,how to
-keep remote tracking branches up to date>> with gitlink:git-fetch[1],
+keep remote tracking branches up to date>> with linkgit:git-fetch[1],
and how to merge two branches. So you can merge in changes from the
original repository's master branch with:
$ git merge origin/master
-------------------------------------------------
-However, the gitlink:git-pull[1] command provides a way to do this in
+However, the linkgit:git-pull[1] command provides a way to do this in
one step:
-------------------------------------------------
More generally, a branch that is created from a remote branch will pull
by default from that branch. See the descriptions of the
branch.<name>.remote and branch.<name>.merge options in
-gitlink:git-config[1], and the discussion of the `--track` option in
-gitlink:git-checkout[1], to learn how to control these defaults.
+linkgit:git-config[1], and the discussion of the `--track` option in
+linkgit:git-checkout[1], to learn how to control these defaults.
In addition to saving you keystrokes, "git pull" also helps you by
producing a default commit message documenting the branch and
If you just have a few changes, the simplest way to submit them may
just be to send them as patches in email:
-First, use gitlink:git-format-patch[1]; for example:
+First, use linkgit:git-format-patch[1]; for example:
-------------------------------------------------
$ git format-patch origin
You can then import these into your mail client and send them by
hand. However, if you have a lot to send at once, you may prefer to
-use the gitlink:git-send-email[1] script to automate the process.
+use the linkgit:git-send-email[1] script to automate the process.
Consult the mailing list for your project first to determine how they
prefer such patches be handled.
Importing patches to a project
------------------------------
-Git also provides a tool called gitlink:git-am[1] (am stands for
+Git also provides a tool called linkgit:git-am[1] (am stands for
"apply mailbox"), for importing such an emailed series of patches.
Just save all of the patch-containing messages, in order, into a
single mailbox file, say "patches.mbox", then run
Another way to submit changes to a project is to tell the maintainer
of that project to pull the changes from your repository using
-gitlink:git-pull[1]. In the section "<<getting-updates-with-git-pull,
+linkgit:git-pull[1]. In the section "<<getting-updates-with-git-pull,
Getting updates with git pull>>" we described this as a way to get
updates from the "main" repository, but it works just as well in the
other direction.
"<<pushing-changes-to-a-public-repository,Pushing changes to a public
repository>>", below.
-Otherwise, all you need to do is start gitlink:git-daemon[1]; it will
+Otherwise, all you need to do is start linkgit:git-daemon[1]; it will
listen on port 9418. By default, it will allow access to any directory
that looks like a git directory and contains the magic file
git-daemon-export-ok. Passing some directory paths as git-daemon
arguments will further restrict the exports to those paths.
You can also run git-daemon as an inetd service; see the
-gitlink:git-daemon[1] man page for details. (See especially the
+linkgit:git-daemon[1] man page for details. (See especially the
examples section.)
[[exporting-via-http]]
-------------------------------------------------
(For an explanation of the last two lines, see
-gitlink:git-update-server-info[1], and the documentation
-link:hooks.html[Hooks used by git].)
+linkgit:git-update-server-info[1], and the documentation
+linkgit:githooks[5][Hooks used by git].)
Advertise the URL of proj.git. Anybody else should then be able to
clone or pull from that URL, for example with a command line like:
access, which you will need to update the public repository with the
latest changes created in your private repository.
-The simplest way to do this is using gitlink:git-push[1] and ssh; to
+The simplest way to do this is using linkgit:git-push[1] and ssh; to
update the remote branch named "master" with the latest state of your
branch named "master", run
-------------------------------------------------
See the explanations of the remote.<name>.url, branch.<name>.remote,
-and remote.<name>.push options in gitlink:git-config[1] for
+and remote.<name>.push options in linkgit:git-config[1] for
details.
[[forcing-push]]
-------------------------------------------------
Normally whenever a branch head in a public repository is modified, it
-is modified to point to a descendent of the commit that it pointed to
+is modified to point to a descendant of the commit that it pointed to
before. By forcing a push in this situation, you break that convention.
(See <<problems-with-rewriting-history>>.)
solution is to retry the push after first updating your work by either a
pull or a fetch followed by a rebase; see the
<<setting-up-a-shared-repository,next section>> and
-link:cvs-migration.html[git for CVS users] for more.
+linkgit:gitcvs-migration[7][git for CVS users] for more.
[[setting-up-a-shared-repository]]
Setting up a shared repository
Another way to collaborate is by using a model similar to that
commonly used in CVS, where several developers with special rights
all push to and pull from a single shared repository. See
-link:cvs-migration.html[git for CVS users] for instructions on how to
+linkgit:gitcvs-migration[7][git for CVS users] for instructions on how to
set this up.
However, while there is nothing wrong with git's support for shared
-------------------------------------------------
Linus's tree will be stored in the remote branch named origin/master,
-and can be updated using gitlink:git-fetch[1]; you can track other
-public trees using gitlink:git-remote[1] to set up a "remote" and
-gitlink:git-fetch[1] to keep them up-to-date; see
+and can be updated using linkgit:git-fetch[1]; you can track other
+public trees using linkgit:git-remote[1] to set up a "remote" and
+linkgit:git-fetch[1] to keep them up-to-date; see
<<repositories-and-branches>>.
Now create the branches in which you are going to work; these start out
at the current tip of origin/master branch, and should be set up (using
-the --track option to gitlink:git-branch[1]) to merge changes in from
+the --track option to linkgit:git-branch[1]) to merge changes in from
Linus by default.
-------------------------------------------------
$ git branch --track release origin/master
-------------------------------------------------
-These can be easily kept up to date using gitlink:git-pull[1].
+These can be easily kept up to date using linkgit:git-pull[1].
-------------------------------------------------
$ git checkout test && git pull
will become part of the permanent history when you ask Linus to pull
from the release branch.
-A few configuration variables (see gitlink:git-config[1]) can
+A few configuration variables (see linkgit:git-config[1]) can
make it easy to push both branches to your public tree. (See
<<setting-up-a-public-repository>>.)
-------------------------------------------------
Then you can push both the test and release trees using
-gitlink:git-push[1]:
+linkgit:git-push[1]:
-------------------------------------------------
$ git push mytree
However, if you prefer to keep the history in mywork a simple series of
commits without any merges, you may instead choose to use
-gitlink:git-rebase[1]:
+linkgit:git-rebase[1]:
-------------------------------------------------
$ git checkout mywork
which will replace the old commit by a new commit incorporating your
changes, giving you a chance to edit the old commit message first.
-You can also use a combination of this and gitlink:git-rebase[1] to
+You can also use a combination of this and linkgit:git-rebase[1] to
replace a commit further back in your history and recreate the
intervening changes on top of it. First, tag the problematic commit
with
Reordering or selecting from a patch series
-------------------------------------------
-Given one existing commit, the gitlink:git-cherry-pick[1] command
+Given one existing commit, the linkgit:git-cherry-pick[1] command
allows you to apply the change introduced by that commit and create a
new commit that records it. So, for example, if "mywork" points to a
series of patches on top of "origin", you might do something like:
and browse through the list of patches in the mywork branch using gitk,
applying them (possibly in a different order) to mywork-new using
cherry-pick, and possibly modifying them as you go using `commit --amend`.
-The gitlink:git-gui[1] command may also help as it allows you to
+The linkgit:git-gui[1] command may also help as it allows you to
individually select diff hunks for inclusion in the index (by
right-clicking on the diff hunk and choosing "Stage Hunk for Commit").
-------------------------------------------------
Then modify, reorder, or eliminate patches as preferred before applying
-them again with gitlink:git-am[1].
+them again with linkgit:git-am[1].
[[patch-series-tools]]
Other tools
Why bisecting merge commits can be harder than bisecting linear history
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
-The gitlink:git-bisect[1] command correctly handles history that
+The linkgit:git-bisect[1] command correctly handles history that
includes merge commits. However, when the commit that it finds is a
merge commit, the user may need to work harder than usual to figure out
why that commit introduced a problem.
on the lower line of development have not been converted to the new
semantics introduced on the upper line of development. So if all
you know is that D is bad, that Z is good, and that
-gitlink:git-bisect[1] identifies C as the culprit, how will you
+linkgit:git-bisect[1] identifies C as the culprit, how will you
figure out that the problem is due to this change in semantics?
When the result of a git-bisect is a non-merge commit, you should
Fetching individual branches
----------------------------
-Instead of using gitlink:git-remote[1], you can also choose just
+Instead of using linkgit:git-remote[1], you can also choose just
to update one branch at a time, and to store it locally under an
arbitrary name:
We saw above that "origin" is just a shortcut to refer to the
repository that you originally cloned from. This information is
stored in git configuration variables, which you can see using
-gitlink:git-config[1]:
+linkgit:git-config[1]:
-------------------------------------------------
$ git config -l
Also note that all of the above configuration can be performed by
directly editing the file .git/config instead of using
-gitlink:git-config[1].
+linkgit:git-config[1].
-See gitlink:git-config[1] for more details on the configuration
+See linkgit:git-config[1] for more details on the configuration
options mentioned above.
The "commit" object links a physical state of a tree with a description
of how we got there and why. Use the --pretty=raw option to
-gitlink:git-show[1] or gitlink:git-log[1] to examine your favorite
+linkgit:git-show[1] or linkgit:git-log[1] to examine your favorite
commit:
------------------------------------------------
- a tree: The SHA1 name of a tree object (as defined below), representing
the contents of a directory at a certain point in time.
- parent(s): The SHA1 name of some number of commits which represent the
- immediately prevoius step(s) in the history of the project. The
+ immediately previous step(s) in the history of the project. The
example above has one parent; merge commits may have more than
one. A commit with no parents is called a "root" commit, and
represents the initial revision of a project. Each project must have
its parents. In particular, git does not attempt to record file renames
explicitly, though it can identify cases where the existence of the same
file data at changing paths suggests a rename. (See, for example, the
--M option to gitlink:git-diff[1]).
+-M option to linkgit:git-diff[1]).
-A commit is usually created by gitlink:git-commit[1], which creates a
+A commit is usually created by linkgit:git-commit[1], which creates a
commit whose parent is normally the current HEAD, and whose tree is
taken from the content currently stored in the index.
Tree Object
~~~~~~~~~~~
-The ever-versatile gitlink:git-show[1] command can also be used to
-examine tree objects, but gitlink:git-ls-tree[1] will give you more
+The ever-versatile linkgit:git-show[1] command can also be used to
+examine tree objects, but linkgit:git-ls-tree[1] will give you more
details:
------------------------------------------------
Blob Object
~~~~~~~~~~~
-You can use gitlink:git-show[1] to examine the contents of a blob; take,
+You can use linkgit:git-show[1] to examine the contents of a blob; take,
for example, the blob in the entry for "COPYING" from the tree above:
------------------------------------------------
renaming a file does not change the object that file is associated with.
Note that any tree or blob object can be examined using
-
gitlink:git-show[1] with the <revision>:<path> syntax. This can
+
linkgit:git-show[1] with the <revision>:<path> syntax. This can
sometimes be useful for browsing the contents of a tree that is not
currently checked out.
A tag object contains an object, object type, tag name, the name of the
person ("tagger") who created the tag, and a message, which may contain
-a signature, as can be seen using the gitlink:git-cat-file[1]:
+a signature, as can be seen using the linkgit:git-cat-file[1]:
------------------------------------------------
$ git cat-file tag v1.5.0
-----END PGP SIGNATURE-----
------------------------------------------------
-See the gitlink:git-tag[1] command to learn how to create and verify tag
-objects. (Note that gitlink:git-tag[1] can also be used to create
+See the linkgit:git-tag[1] command to learn how to create and verify tag
+objects. (Note that linkgit:git-tag[1] can also be used to create
"lightweight tags", which are not tag objects at all, but just simple
references whose names begin with "refs/tags/").
Although the object files are gone, any commands that refer to those
objects will work exactly as they did before.
-The gitlink:git-gc[1] command performs packing, pruning, and more for
+The linkgit:git-gc[1] command performs packing, pruning, and more for
you, so is normally the only high-level command you need.
[[dangling-objects]]
Dangling objects
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
-The gitlink:git-fsck[1] command will sometimes complain about dangling
+The linkgit:git-fsck[1] command will sometimes complain about dangling
objects. They are not a problem.
The most common cause of dangling objects is that you've rebased a
in case you corrupt things even more in the process.
We'll assume that the problem is a single missing or corrupted blob,
-which is sometimes a solveable problem. (Recovering missing trees and
+which is sometimes a solvable problem. (Recovering missing trees and
especially commits is *much* harder).
Before starting, verify that there is corruption, and figure out where
-it is with gitlink:git-fsck[1]; this may be time-consuming.
+it is with linkgit:git-fsck[1]; this may be time-consuming.
Assume the output looks like this:
points to it. If you could find just one copy of that missing blob
object, possibly in some other repository, you could move it into
.git/objects/4b/9458b3... and be done. Suppose you can't. You can
-still examine the tree that pointed to it with gitlink:git-ls-tree[1],
+still examine the tree that pointed to it with linkgit:git-ls-tree[1],
which might output something like:
------------------------------------------------
say it's in "somedirectory". If you're lucky the missing copy might be
the same as the copy you have checked out in your working tree at
"somedirectory/myfile"; you can test whether that's right with
-gitlink:git-hash-object[1]:
+linkgit:git-hash-object[1]:
------------------------------------------------
$ git hash-object -w somedirectory/myfile
The index is a binary file (generally kept in .git/index) containing a
sorted list of path names, each with permissions and the SHA1 of a blob
-object; gitlink:git-ls-files[1] can show you the contents of the index:
+object; linkgit:git-ls-files[1] can show you the contents of the index:
-------------------------------------------------
$ git ls-files --stage
1. The index contains all the information necessary to generate a single
(uniquely determined) tree object.
+
-For example, running gitlink:git-commit[1] generates this tree object
+For example, running linkgit:git-commit[1] generates this tree object
from the index, stores it in the object database, and uses it as the
tree object associated with the new commit.
+
We saw in <<conflict-resolution>> that during a merge the index can
store multiple versions of a single file (called "stages"). The third
-column in the gitlink:git-ls-files[1] output above is the stage
+column in the linkgit:git-ls-files[1] output above is the stage
number, and will take on values other than 0 for files with merge
conflicts.
Partial checkouts of the superproject are possible: you can tell Git to
clone none, some or all of the submodules.
-The gitlink:git-submodule[1] command is available since Git 1.5.3. Users
+The linkgit:git-submodule[1] command is available since Git 1.5.3. Users
with Git 1.5.2 can look up the submodule commits in the repository and
manually check them out; earlier versions won't recognize the submodules at
all.
- It clones the submodule under the current directory and by default checks out
the master branch.
-- It adds the submodule's clone path to the gitlink:gitmodules[5] file and
+- It adds the submodule's clone path to the linkgit:gitmodules[5] file and
adds this file to the index, ready to be committed.
- It adds the submodule's current commit ID to the index, ready to be
committed.
Object access and manipulation
------------------------------
-The gitlink:git-cat-file[1] command can show the contents of any object,
-though the higher-level gitlink:git-show[1] is usually more useful.
+The linkgit:git-cat-file[1] command can show the contents of any object,
+though the higher-level linkgit:git-show[1] is usually more useful.
-The gitlink:git-commit-tree[1] command allows constructing commits with
+The linkgit:git-commit-tree[1] command allows constructing commits with
arbitrary parents and trees.
-A tree can be created with gitlink:git-write-tree[1] and its data can be
-accessed by gitlink:git-ls-tree[1]. Two trees can be compared with
-gitlink:git-diff-tree[1].
+A tree can be created with linkgit:git-write-tree[1] and its data can be
+accessed by linkgit:git-ls-tree[1]. Two trees can be compared with
+linkgit:git-diff-tree[1].
-A tag is created with gitlink:git-mktag[1], and the signature can be
-verified by gitlink:git-verify-tag[1], though it is normally simpler to
-use gitlink:git-tag[1] for both.
+A tag is created with linkgit:git-mktag[1], and the signature can be
+verified by linkgit:git-verify-tag[1], though it is normally simpler to
+use linkgit:git-tag[1] for both.
[[the-workflow]]
The Workflow
------------
-High-level operations such as gitlink:git-commit[1],
-gitlink:git-checkout[1] and gitlink:git-reset[1] work by moving data
+High-level operations such as linkgit:git-commit[1],
+linkgit:git-checkout[1] and linkgit:git-reset[1] work by moving data
between the working tree, the index, and the object database. Git
provides low-level operations which perform each of these steps
individually.
working directory -> index
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
-The gitlink:git-update-index[1] command updates the index with
+The linkgit:git-update-index[1] command updates the index with
information from the working directory. You generally update the
index information by just specifying the filename you want to update,
like so:
it will only update the fields that are used to quickly test whether
an object still matches its old backing store object.
-The previously introduced gitlink:git-add[1] is just a wrapper for
-gitlink:git-update-index[1].
+The previously introduced linkgit:git-add[1] is just a wrapper for
+linkgit:git-update-index[1].
[[index-to-object-database]]
index -> object database
You can examine the data represented in the object database and the
index with various helper tools. For every object, you can use
-gitlink:git-cat-file[1] to examine details about the
+linkgit:git-cat-file[1] to examine details about the
object:
-------------------------------------------------
If you are interested in more details of the revision walking process,
just have a look at the first implementation of `cmd_log()`; call
-`git-show v1.3.0~155^2~4` and scroll down to that function (note that you
+`git-show v1.3.0{tilde}155^2{tilde}4` and scroll down to that function (note that you
no longer need to call `setup_pager()` directly).
Nowadays, `git log` is a builtin, which means that it is _contained_ in the
- howto's
- some of technical/?
- hooks
-- list of commands in gitlink:git[1]
+- list of commands in linkgit:git[1]
Scan email archives for other stuff left out