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# Vectors

- **vector:** a directed line segment  
- arrow indicates direction
- length indicates magnitude
- notated as $\vec{a}, \widetilde{A}, \overrightharp{a}$
- column notation: $\begin{bmatrix}
       x \\ y
     \end{bmatrix}$
- vectors with equal magnitude and direction are equivalent


![](graphics/vectors-intro.png){#id .class width=20%} 

## Vector addition

$\boldsymbol{u} + \boldsymbol{v}$ can be represented by drawing each vector head to tail then joining the lines.  
Addition is commutative (parallelogram)

## Scalar multiplication

For $k \in \mathbb{R}^+$, $k\boldsymbol{u}$ has the same direction as $\boldsymbol{u}$ but length is multiplied by a factor of $k$.

When multiplied by $k < 0$, direction is reversed and length is multplied by $k$.

## Vector subtraction

To find $\boldsymbol{u} - \boldsymbol{v}$, add $\boldsymbol{-v}$ to $\boldsymbol{u}$

## Parallel vectors

Same or opposite direction

$$\boldsymbol{u} || \boldsymbol{v} \iff \boldsymbol{u} = k \boldsymbol{v} \text{ where } k \in \mathbb{R} \setminus \{0\}$$ 

## Position vectors

Vectors may describe a position relative to $O$.

For a point $A$, the position vector is $\overrightharp{OA}$

\vfill\eject

## Linear combinations of non-parallel vectors

If two non-zero vectors $\boldsymbol{a}$ and $\boldsymbol{b}$ are not parallel, then:

$$m\boldsymbol{a} + n\boldsymbol{b} = p \boldsymbol{a} + q \boldsymbol{b}\quad \therefore \quad m = p, \> n = q$$

![](graphics/parallelogram-vectors.jpg){#id .class width=20%}
![](graphics/vector-subtraction.jpg){#id .class width=10%}

## Column vector notation

A vector between points $A(x_1,y_1), \> B(x_2,y_2)$ can be represented as $\begin{bmatrix}x_2-x_1\\ y_2-y_1 \end{bmatrix}$

## Component notation

A vector $\boldsymbol{u} = \begin{bmatrix}x\\ y \end{bmatrix}$ can be written as $\boldsymbol{u} = x\boldsymbol{i} + y\boldsymbol{j}$.  
$\boldsymbol{u}$ is the sum of two components $x\boldsymbol{i}$ and $y\boldsymbol{j}$  
Magnitude of vector $\boldsymbol{u} = x\boldsymbol{i} + y\boldsymbol{j}$ is denoted by $|u|=\sqrt{x^2+y^2}$

Basic algebra applies:  
$(x\boldsymbol{i} + y\boldsymbol{j}) + (m\boldsymbol{i} + n\boldsymbol{j}) = (x + m)\boldsymbol{i} + (y+n)\boldsymbol{j}$  
Two vectors equal if and only if their components are equal.

## Unit vector $|\hat{\boldsymbol{a}}|=1$

\begin{equation}\begin{split}\hat{\boldsymbol{a}} & = {1 \over {|\boldsymbol{a}|}}\boldsymbol{a} \\ & = \boldsymbol{a} \cdot {|\boldsymbol{a}|}\end{split}\end{equation}

## Scalar/dot product $\boldsymbol{a} \cdot \boldsymbol{b}$

$$\boldsymbol{a} \cdot \boldsymbol{b} = a_1 b_1 + a_2 b_2$$

**on CAS:** `dotP([a b c], [d e f])`

## Scalar product properties

1. $k(\boldsymbol{a\cdot b})=(k\boldsymbol{a})\cdot \boldsymbol{b}=\boldsymbol{a}\cdot (k{b})$
2. $\boldsymbol{a \cdot 0}=0$
3. $\boldsymbol{a \cdot (b + c)}=\boldsymbol{a \cdot b + a \cdot c}$
4. $\boldsymbol{i \cdot i} = \boldsymbol{j \cdot j} = \boldsymbol{k \cdot k}= 1$
5. If $\boldsymbol{a} \cdot \boldsymbol{b} = 0$, $\boldsymbol{a}$ and $\boldsymbol{b}$ are perpendicular
6. $\boldsymbol{a \cdot a} = |\boldsymbol{a}|^2 = a^2$

For parallel vectors $\boldsymbol{a}$ and $\boldsymbol{b}$:  
$$\boldsymbol{a \cdot b}=\begin{cases}
|\boldsymbol{a}||\boldsymbol{b}| \hspace{2.8em} \text{if same direction}\\
-|\boldsymbol{a}||\boldsymbol{b}| \hspace{2em} \text{if opposite directions}
\end{cases}$$

## Geometric scalar products

$$\boldsymbol{a} \cdot \boldsymbol{b} = |\boldsymbol{a}| |\boldsymbol{b}| \cos \theta$$

where $0 \le \theta \le \pi$

## Perpendicular vectors

If $\boldsymbol{a} \cdot \boldsymbol{b} = 0$, then $\boldsymbol{a} \perp \boldsymbol{b}$ (since $\cos 90 = 0$)

## Finding angle between vectors

**positive direction**

$$\cos \theta = {{\boldsymbol{a} \cdot \boldsymbol{b}} \over {|\boldsymbol{a}| |\boldsymbol{b}|}} = {{a_1 b_1 + a_2 b_2} \over {|\boldsymbol{a}| |\boldsymbol{b}|}}$$

**on CAS:** `angle([a b c], [a b c])` (Action -> Vector -> Angle)

## Angle between vector and axis

Direction of a vector can be given by the angles it makes with $\boldsymbol{i}, \boldsymbol{j}, \boldsymbol{k}$ directions.

For $\boldsymbol{a} = a_1 \boldsymbol{i} + a_2 \boldsymbol{j} + a_3 \boldsymbol{k}$ which makes angles $\alpha, \beta, \gamma$ with positive direction of $x, y, z$ axes:
$$\cos \alpha = {a_1 \over |\boldsymbol{a}|}, \quad \cos \beta = {a_2 \over |\boldsymbol{a}|}, \quad \cos \gamma = {a_3 \over |\boldsymbol{a}|}$$

**on CAS:** `angle([a b c], [1 0 0])` for angle between $a\boldsymbol{i} + b\boldsymbol{j} + c\boldsymbol{k}$ and $x$-axis

## Vector projections

Vector resolute of $\boldsymbol{a}$ in direction of $\boldsymbol{b}$ is magnitude of $\boldsymbol{a}$ in direction of $\boldsymbol{b}$:

$$\boldsymbol{u}={{\boldsymbol{a}\cdot\boldsymbol{b}}\over |\boldsymbol{b}|^2}\boldsymbol{b}=\left({\boldsymbol{a}\cdot{\boldsymbol{b} \over |\boldsymbol{b}|}}\right)\left({\boldsymbol{b} \over |\boldsymbol{b}|}\right)=(\boldsymbol{a} \cdot \hat{\boldsymbol{b}})\hat{\boldsymbol{b}}$$

## Scalar resolute of $\boldsymbol{a}$ on $\boldsymbol{b}$

$$r_s = |\boldsymbol{u}| = \boldsymbol{a} \cdot \hat{\boldsymbol{b}}$$

## Vector resolute of $\boldsymbol{a} \perp \boldsymbol{b}$

$$\boldsymbol{w} = \boldsymbol{a} - \boldsymbol{u} \> \text{ where } \boldsymbol{u} \text{ is projection } \boldsymbol{a} \text{ on } \boldsymbol{b}$$

## Vector proofs

### Concurrent lines

$\ge$ 3 lines intersect at a single point  

### Collinear points

$\ge$ 3 points lie on the same line  
$\implies \vec{OC} = \lambda \vec{OA} + \mu \vec{OB}$ where $\lambda + \mu = 1$. If $C$ is between $\vec{AB}$, then $0 < \mu < 1$  
Points $A, B, C$ are collinear iff $\vec{AC}=m\vec{AB} \text{ where } m \ne 0$

### Useful vector properties

- If $\boldsymbol{a}$ and $\boldsymbol{b}$ are parallel, then $\boldsymbol{b}=k\boldsymbol{a}$ for some $k \in \mathbb{R} \setminus \{0\}$
- If $\boldsymbol{a}$ and $\boldsymbol{b}$ are parallel with at least one point in common, then they lie on the same straight line
- Two vectors $\boldsymbol{a}$ and $\boldsymbol{b}$ are perpendicular if $\boldsymbol{a} \cdot \boldsymbol{b}=0$
- $\boldsymbol{a} \cdot \boldsymbol{a} = |\boldsymbol{a}|^2$

## Linear dependence

Vectors $\boldsymbol{a}, \boldsymbol{b}, \boldsymbol{c}$ are linearly dependent if they are non-parallel and:

$$k\boldsymbol{a}+l\boldsymbol{b}+m\boldsymbol{c} = 0$$
$$\therefore \boldsymbol{c} = m\boldsymbol{a} + n\boldsymbol{b} \quad \text{(simultaneous)}$$

$\boldsymbol{a}, \boldsymbol{b},$ and $\boldsymbol{c}$ are linearly independent if no vector in the set is expressible as a linear combination of other vectors in set, or if they are parallel.

Vector $\boldsymbol{w}$ is a linear combination of vectors $\boldsymbol{v_1}, \boldsymbol{v_2}, \boldsymbol{v_3}$

## Three-dimensional vectors

Right-hand rule for axes: $z$ is up or out of page.

i![](graphics/vectors-3d.png)

## Parametric vectors

Parametric equation of line through point $(x_0, y_0, z_0)$ and parallel to $a\boldsymbol{i} + b\boldsymbol{j} + c\boldsymbol{k}$ is:

\begin{equation}\begin{cases}x = x_o + a \cdot t \\ y = y_0 + b \cdot t \\ z = z_0 + c \cdot t\end{cases}\end{equation}

## Vector functions

$$\boldsymbol{r}(t)=x\boldsymbol{i}+y\boldsymbol{y}$$

- If $\boldsymbol{r}(t)$ represents position with time, then the graph of endpoints of $\boldsymbol{r}(t)$ represents the Cartesian path.
- Domain of $\boldsymbol{r}(t)$ is the range of $x(t)$
- Range of $\boldsymbol{r}(t)$ is the range of $y(t)$